INTRODUCTION

THE ROMAN MILITARY
The Legions
Emblems, Weapons, and Dress
Auxiliaries
Praetorian Guard
Other Units

SOCIAL CLASSES
The Senatorial Order
The Equestrian Order
Municipal Aristocracies
Plebeians and Other Free Persons
Freedmen

SLAVERY

ROMAN CITIZENSHIP

ROMAN LAW

SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
Patron-Client Relationship
Friendship
Social Networks
Honor and Shame

SOCIAL MORALITY
Marriage and Family
Place of Women
Children

ECONOMIC LIFE
Trade and Travel
Coinage
Taxation

CLOTHING AND APPEARANCE

ENTERTAINMENT
Theatres
Athletics
Arenas
Circuses
Gymnasia and Baths
Banquets
Music

EDUCATION

LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE
Authors
Rhetoric
Literary Forms and Genres
Making of Books
Reading and Studying of Books
Inscriptions and Papyri
Language

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

CLUBS AND ASSOCIATIONS
Greek Clubs
Roman Colleges
Egyptian Associations
The Statutes of an Association
Conclusion

HELLENISTIC-ROMAN RELIGIONS

ANCIENT GREEK RELIGION
The Epic Age: Homer
Hesiod
The Archaic Period
Signs of Dissolution in the Classical Age
ANCIENT ROMAN RELIGION
Deities
Religious Personnel
Religious Observances
Soul and the Dead
Characteristics of Roman Religion

RELIGION IN HELLENISTIC-ROMAN TIMES: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

DOMESTIC AND RURAL RELIGION
Greek
Roman
CIVIC CULTS
Priesthood
Ritual Prescriptions
Sacrifice
Votive Offerings
Prayers and Hymns
Festivals
Other Features
A Sample of a Civic Cult: Ephesus and Artemis

RULER CULT
Antecedents and Presuppositions
Historical Developments
Forms of the Imperial Cult

PERSONAL RELIGION
Oracles
Dreams and Divination
Healing Cults
Magic and Maledictions
Imprecations and Oaths
Demons and Superstition
Astrology, Astral Religion, and Fate
Death and the Afterlife

GREEK MYSTERIES AND EASTERN RELIGIONS
Local Mysteries
Eleusinian Mysteries
Dionysiac Mysteries
Egyptian Deities: Isis, Osiris, and Sarapis
Phoenician Deities: Astarte and Adonis
Syrian Deities: Atargatis and Others
Phrygian Deities: Cybele and Attis
A Persian Deity: Mithras
Mystery Religions and Christianity

GNOSTICISM, HERMETIC LITERATURE, CHALDAEAN ORACLES
The Term Gnosticism
Sources for Study
Origins of Gnosticism
Characteristic Features
Gnosticism in the New Testament
The Hermetica
Chaldaean Oracles

LATER DEVELOPMENTS: MONOTHEISM AND SUN WORSHIP

HELLENISTIC-ROMAN PHILOSOPHIES

INTRODUCTION
Philosophy as Religion
Philosophy as Ethics
Popular Philosophy
Philosophy and Individualism
Philosophy in Its Social Setting

SOPHISTS AND SOCRATES
The Sophists
Socrates (469–399 B.C.)

PLATO AND THE ACADEMY TO THE FIRST CENTURY
Life of Plato (429–347 B.C.)
The Dialogues
Plato’s Thought
Plato’s Influence
The Old Academy
The Skeptical Academy
The Eclectic Academy

ARISTOTLE AND THE PERIPATETICS
Life of Aristotle (384–322 B.C.)
Aristotle’s Thought
Aristotle’s Influence
Theophrastus (370–285 B.C.)
Strato
Later History and General Character
Aspects of the Peripatetic Legacy

SKEPTICISM
Pyrrho (c. 360–c. 270 B.C.)
Aenesidemus
Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 200)
Influence of Skepticism

CYNICISM
Beginnings of Cynicism
Cynic Characteristics
Dio of Prusa (A.D. 40 to after 112)
Lucian of Samosata (c. A.D. 120 to after 180)

STOICISM
Early Stoa
Stoic Physics
Stoic Logic and Epistemology
Stoic Ethics
Middle Stoa
Later Stoa: Roman Stoicism
Stoicism and Christianity

EPICUREANISM
Epicurus and His School
Lucretius (94–55 B.C.)
Epicurean Physics
Epicurean Epistemology
Epicurean Ethics
Estimate and Comparisons

ECLECTICISM
Characteristics
Cicero (106–43 B.C.)

NEOPYTHAGOREANISM
Pythagoras
The Pythagorean Revival
Apollonius of Tyana and Philostratus
Numenius

MIDDLE PLATONISM
Characteristics
Plutarch (c. A.D. 50–after 120)

PLOTINUS AND NEOPLATONISM
Life of Plotinus (A.D. 205–270)
Plotinus’s System
Later Neoplatonists

JUDAISM

JEWISH HISTORY, 538 B.C. TO A.D. 200
The Persian Period (538–332 B.C.)
The Greek Period (332–167 B.C.)
The Maccabean or Hasmonean Period (167–63 B.C.)
The Roman Period (from 63 B.C.)

JEWS IN THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE

JEWISH LITERATURE AND OTHER SOURCES IN THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS
The Old Testament in Greek
Jewish Literature in Greek: Fragments
Apocrypha
Pseudepigrapha
Dead Sea Scrolls
Apocalyptic Writings
Philo
Josephus
Rabbinic Literature
Jewish Mysticism
Archaeological Sources
Pagan References to Jews

PARTIES AND SECTS
Pharisees
Sadducees
Qumran Community, Essenes, and Therapeutae
Zealots
Herodians
Samaritans
BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
One God
Israel, the Chosen People
Torah, Tradition, and Scripture
Proselytes and Godfearers
Messianism and the Glorious Destiny
Afterlife
Festivals and Holy Days
Daily Devotions

ORGANIZATION AND INSTITUTIONS
Temple and Priesthood
Sanhedrin
Community Organization
Rabbis
Synagogue
CHRISTIANITY IN THE ANCIENT WORLD

LITERARY REFERENCES TO CHRISTIANITY IN NON-CHRISTIAN SOURCES
Latin Authors
Greek Authors
Jewish Sources in Greek
Jewish Sources in Hebrew and Aramaic

ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS BEARING ON EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY
Inscriptions
Papyri
Coins

SOME CLAIMED ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS OF EARLY CHRISTIANITY
Rotas-Sator Word Square
The “Cross” at Herculaneum
Ossuaries
The Tomb of Peter

ATTITUDES OF PAGANS TOWARD CHRISTIANS

THE LEGAL STATUS OF CHRISTIANITY
HINDRANCES TO THE ACCEPTANCE OF CHRISTIANITY
RELIGIOUS RIVALS
Judaism
Pagan Religion and Philosophy
Gnosticism and Other Rival Versions of Christianity
Jewish Christianity

FACTORS FAVORABLE TO CHRISTIANITY
External Circumstances
Hellenistic Judaism
Religious Quest

WHAT WAS UNIQUE IN CHRISTIANITY?

Map of the Ancient World

Having long served as a standard introduction to the world of the early church, Everett Ferguson's Backgrounds of Early Christianity has been expanded and updated in this third edition. The book explores and unpacks the Roman, Greek, and Jewish political, social, religious, and philosophical backgrounds necessary for a good historical understanding of the New Testament and the early church. New to this edition are revisions of Ferguson's original material, updated bibliographies, and fresh discussions of first-century social life, of Gnosticism, and of the Dead Sea Scrolls and other Jewish literature.